Uncover the dramatic saga of Sweden, from its ancient Sami roots to the Viking Age and the rise of empires, through bloody unions and cultural revolutions. Explore how this Nordic nation evolved into a modern beacon of peace and inclusivity while honoring its rich heritage and diverse history.
Sweden has been populated since the Stone Age, and was an agrarian society as early as the Iron Age.[[1]] The Sami were indigenous to the region, with a presence that goes back an estimated two to ten millennia. Immigration and settlement from various other places and communities continued across several centuries.
The Viking Age[[2]] is considered to span the years 800 to 1050, characterised by violence, trade and travel. In the 11th century, Sweden made a turn toward Christianity. It was also around this time that the myriad provinces in Sweden were consolidated under a single crown. The construction of today's Stockholm started in 1253.[[3]]
The stratification of Swedish society to include a noble class was enacted as early as the 13th century. In 1280, King Magnus Ladulås ordered for a feudal system to be followed.[[4]] The relationship between the monarchy and nobility would remain a contentious dance for the next few eras.
The medieval Swedish state (1319 – 1520)
The unification of Sweden and Norway
In 1319, Sweden – which had been divided into three in 1310 – and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson, though he was formally crowned king of the two nations only in 1332. Meanwhile in neighbouring Denmark, monarchs had wreaked divisive havoc, and then died. King Magnus, an opportunist, purchased many eastern Danish provinces, including Scania (Skåne). During this time, Sweden also expanded into Norrland and Finland, causing tension with Russia. The Christian colonisation project in Sweden was well underway in 1340, when the king announced the availability of land in Lapland to believers and converts in exchange for paying taxes and following laws.
The Hanseatic League
What began as a cooperation between seafaring merchants to ward off pirates evolved into a network of cities based around trade. The League was centred in Lübeck in Germany (Hansa = crowd), but expanded to include most countries around the Baltic Sea. Over four centuries, they largely held monopoly over trade, and thus economy, in the region. Over 200 towns participated, and even more benefited, including Sweden.[[5]]
Black Death
The Hanseatic League also brought with it something more sinister. Between 1346 and 1353, Europe saw one of its worst pandemics in history – the bubonic plague that claimed so many lives it is now known as the Black Death (or sometimes the Great Death, Digerdöden in Swedish).[[6]] It spread to Norway via a Hanseatic League ship in 1349, and then to Sweden. The economy and population of the country took a massive hit, in addition to forcing religious and social changes.
The rise of the Kalmar Union
Queen Margaret of Denmark – who was the daughter-in-law of King Magnus – united the Nordic countries with the support of the Swedish nobility, laying the groundwork for the creation of the Kalmar Union. However, a succession dispute with the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, interrupted these plans. Albert was arrested 1389, but hired privateers[[7]] to take Bornholm and Visby in 1392, effectively causing the Hanseatic League to mediate rule in Stockholm from 1395 to 1398. The Kalmar Union[[8]] was then formalised under Margaret's great-nephew, King Erik.
The Stockholm Bloodbath
The Kalmar Union retained its status for over a century, but rapidly disintegrated following what is now known as the Stockholm Bloodbath, in 1520. Christian II had just been crowned king of Sweden, but during the following festivities at Tre Kronor castle, ordered the execution of over 80 people accused of heresy, who were beheaded on the spot or within the next few days. The massacred included many nobles who had favoured the opposition and the Kalmar Union.
The Vasa era (1523 - 1611)
The nobility's revenge
The events of 1520 predictably led to a rebellion from the nobility, following which a nobleman named Gustav Vasa was elected king in 1523. Sweden seceded from the Kalman Union, becoming an independent nation. In 1544, the monarchy was updated to follow a hereditary structure.
A period of reformation
The reign of Vasa ushered in sweeping changes in society. He became a Protestant, and led the Protestant Reformation. In 1527, the Catholic church was nationalised, along with all of its wealth, mostly in the form of farmland. The king also drove out the Hanseatic traders who had previously had monopoly over the region in 1535, resulting in improvements for the economy. Soon after, tax reforms were introduced, and Sweden began to train the first modern army in Europe.
A bunch of wars
After Gustav Vasa died in 1560, his son Eric took over and promptly engaged in warfare. Sweden was after control of the Baltics, for which it fought with Denmark, Russia, and even Poland. A year later, during the Livonian War, Estonia agreed to a vassalage with Sweden. Things became complicated between the monarchy and nobility once again in 1568 with the murder of the Sture brothers.
Vasa family drama
King Eric was kicked out, and his brother John took over. The wars stopped for a while. In 1592, with the crowning of John's son Sigismund – who preferred to reside in Poland and rule from there as a regency – there was unrest again. Unbeknownst to Sigismund, he was replaced by Charles, Gustav Vasa's third son, and fought a civil war to regain his position, but unfortunately lost.
Great Power Era (1611 - 1721)
Age of discontent
The 17th century saw disgruntled farmers, who were faced with taxes and military conscription. The Polish-Swedish wars were fought between 1600 and 1629, during which Livonian farmers were also asked to volunteer. Sweden's Duke Karl – who would be crowned Karl IX, sovereign of Sweden in 1604 – personally commended Jurgen Polman, hauptmann of Antzen, for recruiting hundreds of farmers with the promise of alleviated taxes. Baltic German nobles in the region often handled administrative matters, and were required to provide horse service in exchange for fiefdoms and other benefits. However, Sweden lost territories it had gained in previous invasions.
Winning wars
The tables turned in the Ingrian war, and ceded territories were regained, most significantly Livonia. Sweden also won wars against Denmark (regaining most of Lapland), Russia and Poland. King Gustav II Adolph fought Sigismund to keep him, once again, from the Swedish throne. For a country with a small population of one million, these victories were no mean feat, and set the stage for an era of power and control – starting with the Baltics, which helped Sweden gain access to resources. In the 1630s, they even flirted with colonialism, establishing colonies in America (present-day Delaware) and Ghana.
The Thirty-Years War
This intense war, which involved most of central Europe, lasted from 1618 through 1648. Originating as a religious conflict in response to the Reformation and Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire, it resulted in a significant decline of population and resources. Sweden got involved in 1630, in an event now known as the Swedish Intervention, referring to their invasion of the Empire in Germany. Gustav II Adolph was killed, and despite some victories, Sweden made peace five years later.[[9]] Chancellor Oxenstierna continued the king's policy, but it wasn't until French intervention that things began to change – essentially expanding the conflict.
Peace
In 1648, Queen Kristina, who had had enough of the war, was pivotal in bringing about the Peace of Westphalia. In the aftermath, Sweden received indemnity and could focus on pursuits other than war, and flourished as a prestigious centre of arts and culture.[[10]] Stockholm became the capital of Sweden in 1653. In 1654, Kristina – who had already announced that she would never marry, and proclaimed a successor – decided that her heart lay in Rome, and in Catholicism, and she abdicated the throne to begin a new life.
The cracks in power
The Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia, Denmark-Norway, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and more between 1655 and 1660. It was triggered by King Karl X Gustav's invasion of Poland, known as The Deluge. Sweden defeated Denmark and made gains of Danish lands through the Peace of Roskilde. The power of this once humble country was now undeniable. The Scanian War followed from 1675 to 1679, where Sweden and France were allies once again. Sweden lost much, and all these wars predictably took a toll. This resulted in the Great Reduction of 1680, wherein many fiefdoms previously granted to nobles were taken back by the crown. In 1697, the palace Tre Kronor went up in flames.
The Battle of Poltava
As the Northern War continued, Sweden was attacked in 1700 and handed a resounding defeat at the hands of Denmark, Russia and Poland. In 1709, the decisive Battle of Poltava resulted in a victory for Russia, and the majority of the Swedish army – including brothers Carl Gustaf and Goran Pahlman – were captured and exiled to Siberia for several decades.
The fall of power
King Karl XII managed to evade capture and fled to the Ottoman empire, stirring them up into a war with Russia that they didn't really care for. Russia was successfully held off, but their lack of interest in pushing further miffed Karl XII, who gave them up as a bad job.[[11]] Meanwhile, soldiers in Sweden turned rogue, and northern Sweden was attacked. The Swedish empire fell from the height of power and shattered. Karl XII died in 1718, and with this, the Swedish monarchy was dismantled even as Russia gained power. A peace treaty was signed, and Sweden lost most of its provinces and power. Its size became restricted largely to what comprises the country today, as well as Finland.
Age of freedom (1722 - 1771)
Civilian governance
The Riksdag stripped the crown of much of its power, favouring a civilian parliament and constitutional monarchy that would make better choices. The economy began to recover through export trade with Britain. Two opposing political parties emerged, calling themselves the Hats and the Caps; the former comprised mainly of nobles seeking revenge on Russia but not in much of a position to do so. They ruled from 1739 to 1765 and dabbled in some warmongering.
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment found Sweden during the reign of Gustav III with the influence of his mother, Queen Lovisa Ulrika.[[12]] As with the rest of Europe, it highlighted the arts and sciences. In 1739, the Academy of Science was founded, followed by the Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1753. A Lapland province began to be defined in 1751, finalised in 1766. That same year, a law was passed guaranteeing the freedom of the press. The Sami gained representation and voting rights in the Swedish Riksdag. Tensions between Russia and a much-weakened Sweden continued, but in 1745, they formed an alliance, and found peace in 1762 when Empress Catherine the Great came to the throne.
Gustavian era (1772 - 1809)
An Enlightened despot
The dance between the nobility and the monarchy continued, and in 1772, the monarchy was tired of sitting around. Gustav III came to the throne the previous year, founded a music academy, and soon initiated a coup détat with support from France. This effectively restored the monarchy, ending the "freedom" of a civilian government as well as the Enlightenment. A patron of the arts and music, Gustav III also strengthened the bureaucracy, economy and defence systems in the country.
A social landscape
Sweden's population increased rapidly, doubling in number from the 17th century. With it came the rampant abuse of alcohol. A number of social reforms were introduced by the monarchy, which wanted to cater to the middle classes through an anti-feudal model. This further alienated and weakened the nobility, pitting them against both the monarchy and the middle classes.
The assassination
Gustav III embroiled Sweden in yet another war with Russia. The Russo-Swedish War lasted from 1788 to 1791. The sidelined nobles, already disgruntled and dismissed, used this as an excuse to assassinate the king at his own masquerade ball in 1792. He was succeeded by Gustav IV, who decided to fight with France.
The French connection
Sweden was thrashed by France in the Napoleonic Wars, losing Finland (to Russia) and Pomerania, but gaining Norway. The army overthrew the king, and decided that no Swede was good enough to rule the country. Instead they chose a French marshal, John Baptiste Bernadotte, who was crowned Karl XIV Johan, Crown Prince of Sweden in 1810 – a development welcomed by many intellectuals including Otto Fredrik Pahlman.
Afterword
Sweden in the 19th century experienced the industrial revolution, reforms and modernisation. Due to less need for labour on farmland, about a million people migrated to the United States. In 1814, there was a forced union of Sweden and Norway once again, which lasted until 1905. In a significant departure from previous decades, Sweden did not engage in any more wars, and adopted a position of neutrality and non-alignment until recently. The Sami were formally recognised as indigenous to the land only in 1977.
[[1]]: "Ice Age, Iron Age, IT Age", sweden.se, https://sweden.se/culture/history/history-of-sweden
[[2]]: Scandinavian seafarers who travelled and traded, also resorting to piracy and violence.
[[3]]: Ken Polsson, "Chronology of Sweden," 2000-2023, http://kpolsson.com/sweden/
[[4]]: Hans Högman, "The Concept of Nobility – Sweden", History: Hans Högman, https://www.hhogman.se/nobility-sweden.htm
[[5]]: "The Medieval Hanseatic League", The Hansa, https://www.hanse.org/en/the-medieval-hanseatic-league
[[6]]: Hans Högman, "Health Care and Diseases in the Past," History: Hans Högman, https://www.hhogman.se/diseases-formerly.htm
[[7]]: Known as the Victual Brothers
[[8]]: Signed at Kalmar, declaring that Sweden, Norway and Denmark would have a common king but be governed by separate laws.
[[9]]: Peace of Prague, 1635
[[10]]: Neil Taylor, Estonia: A Modern History (London: Hurst and Company, 2018)
[[11]]: Turkey declared war on Russia in 1710 with the promise of a Swedish attack against Poland; but signed a peace treaty with Russia the following year.
[[12]]:"Queen Lovisa Ulrika," The Royal Palaces, https://www.kungligaslotten.se/english/list-of-swedish-monarchs/lovisa-ulrika.html
